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It started with Perrier. Somehow, a French company convinced people it's cool to buy bottled water. Today, Evian has surpassed Perrier in sales and now it's the chic French water of choice. Why? It costs about 5 bucks a gallon! Why do people pay so much for something they can get virtually free?

If they're not buying Evian, they buy Aquafina and Dasani and the dozens of new brands that are jumping into this billion-dollar business, including bizarre ones like Venus, the Water for Women, and Trump Ice, with "The Donald" scowling on the label. I'd have to be very thirsty to buy that.

Many people say they buy bottled waters because they taste better. We spoke with people in New York City, asking them why they liked bottled better than tap water.

"I drink Dasani. It tastes good, it tastes crisp, like -- natural," one girl said.

People also say they drink bottled water because they believe it's safer than tap water.

One man told me he's the only one "who's brave enough" to drink tap water at home. His family's afraid to drink tap water because of germs, he said.

At recent Earth Day celebrations, a lot of people told us they believe tap water is unhealthy. "As a parent I feel more comfortable giving her bottled water," one father told us.

Watching bottled water ads, you'd think that tap water might not be healthy. But it's not true.

"20/20" took five bottles of national brands of bottled water and a sample of tap water from a drinking fountain in the middle of New York City and sent them to microbiologist Aaron Margolin of the University of New Hampshire to test for bacteria that can make you sick, like e. coli.

"There was actually no difference between the New York City tap water and the bottled waters that we evaluated," he said.

Many scientists have run tests like that and have consistently found that tap water is as good for you as bottled waters that cost 500 times more.

Even Yale University School of Medicine's Dr. Stephen Edberg, the person whom the International Bottled Water Association told "20/20" to talk to, agreed that bottled water is no better for you. "No, I wouldn't argue it's safer or not safer."

"I wouldn't say it's healthier than tap water. I mean, they both provide water," Edberg added.

"I can definitely taste the difference between like a Fiji water and an Evian and a Poland Spring," one woman said. Many brands -- Aquafina, Deer Park and Dasani -- had loyal fans.

The labels of the bottled waters do suggest they're special. Some show mountains or polar bears or glaciers. You have to look at the fine print to find out Everest Water is not from Mount Everest. It's from Corpus Christi, Texas. Glacier Clear Water is not from a glacier in Alaska. Its source is tap water from Greeneville, Tenn.

Big-selling Dasani and Aquafina are also just reprocessed tap water from cities around the country. One of Aquafina's sources is the Detroit River! At least the popular French water, Evian, does come from France.

We ran a taste test, offering people New York City tap water and five other bottled waters, Evian, the top-selling bottled water Aquafina, Poland Spring, Deer Park, and American Fare, a discount brand from Kmart, which sells for less than half the price of Evian.

Would people be able to tell the difference when they didn't know what they were drinking? Would they still prefer their favorites?

Many who took our taste test were bottled water drinkers. They pay for it, they say, because tap water just doesn't taste as good.

We asked people to rate the waters as bad, average or great. Lots of people said one of the waters was particularly bad. Was that the tap water? No. Tap water did pretty well. Even people who said they don't like it, liked it on the blind test.

The "20/20" taste test was just one unscientific test, but lots of tests keep finding that people like tap water.

I suspect many people who buy the fancy waters are getting suckered by the ads or the labels.

In our test of bottled waters, Kmart's American Fare -- the cheapest brand -- won. Big-seller Aquafina came in second, followed by Deer Park.

Ordinary tap water finished in fourth place. Fifth place went to Poland Spring, and in last place, by far, with almost half the testers saying it tasted bad, was the most expensive water -- the fancy French stuff, Evian.

Bottom line, if you buy bottled water because you think it's healthier than tap, test after test shows no evidence of that. And if you buy fancy brands because you think they taste better, you're probably just buying the hype.

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Andrea Immer, the author of Great Wine Made Simple, tasted and critiqued the 10 best-selling bottled waters (according to Beverage Digest) for Real Simple. Water, it turns out, is not so tasteless after all. Here's how Immer ranked them. (The numbers in the parentheses are the sales rankings.)

1. ABERFOYLE (3; sold at Wal-Mart) Creamy texture and a silky mouth feel, but also a "lift" to the flavor. It's the best all-purpose water.

2. CRYSTAL GEYSER (10) Purest, most neutral, and "clean," with some viscosity.

3. DANNON (5) The 10 milligrams of sodium give a brightness and dimension to the flavor that's pleasant and lively.

4. EVIAN (7) The rich viscosity gives this water a "wetter" feeling and a smooth taste.

5. DASANI (6) Pleasant. Think of the clean and natural smell of wet gravel after rain.

6. DEER PARK (9) Smooth, with a little hint of mineral taste. Quite nice.

7. ARROWHEAD (8) Clean but flat, like drinking water after it's been boiled and cooled.

8. AQUAFINA (1) The top seller is among my least favorites because of a slight papery taste in the mouth and a bitterness in the aftertaste.

9. GENERIC STORE BRAND (2; in this case, Rite Aid's Crystal Lake) Has a chalky and gritty aftertaste, as though you've drunk from a dusty glass.

10. POLAND SPRING (4) It has that slightly stale taste of a glass of water that's been sitting around for a while.

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In 1979 I started drinking bottled water. My bottles, however, contained tap water and were nestled in small cages on the frame of my racing bicycle.

Tap water was good enough then because we did not know how much healthier and tastier bottled water is. It must be, because Americans today spend more than $7 billion a year on it, paying 120 to 7,500 times as much per gallon for bottled water as for tap. Bottled prices range from 75 cents to $6 a gallon, versus tap prices that vary from about 80 cents to $6.40 per 1,000 gallons. We wouldn't invest that for nothing, would we?

Apparently we would. In March 1999 the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) published the results of a four-year study in which they tested more than 1,000 samples of 103 brands of bottled water, finding that "an estimated 25 percent or more of bottled water is really just tap water in a bottle--sometimes further treated, sometimes not." If the label says "from a municipal source" or "from a community water system," it's tap water.

Even more disturbing, the NRDC found that 18 of the 103 brands tested had, in at least one sample, "more bacteria than allowed under microbiological-purity guidelines." About one fifth of the waters "contained synthetic organic chemicals--such as industrial chemicals (e.g., toluene or xylene) or chemicals used in manufacturing plastic (e.g., phthalate, adipate, or styrene)," but these were "generally at levels below state and federal standards." The International Bottled Water Association issued a response to the NRDC study in which it states, "Close scrutiny of the water quality standards for chemical contaminants reveals that [the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's] bottled water quality standards are the same as [the Environmental Protection Agency's] tap water standards." Well, that's a relief, but in paying exceptional prices one might hope for exceptional quality.

One problem is that bottled water is subject to less rigorous purity standards and less frequent tests for bacteria and chemical contaminants than those required of tap water. For example, bottled-water plants must test for coliform bacteria once a week; city tap water must be tested 100 or more times a month.

If bottled water is not safer (a 2001 World Wildlife Fund study corroborated the general findings of the NRDC), then surely it tastes better? It does ... as long as you believe in your brand. Enter the water-wars hype. Pepsi introduced Aquafina, so Coke countered with Dasani, a brand that included a "Wellness Team" (meet Susie, Jonny and Ellie, the "stress relief facilitator," "fitness trainer" and "lifestyle counselor," respectively) on its Web site. Both companies charge more for their plain water than for their sugar water.

When the test is blind, however, the hype falls on deaf taste buds. In May 2001 ABC's Good Morning America found viewers' preferences to be Evian (12 percent), O-2 (19 percent), Poland Spring (24 percent) and good old New York City tap (45 percent). In July 2001 the Cincinnati Enquirer discovered that on a 1-to-10 scale, that city's tap water rated an 8.2, compared with Dannon's 8.3 and Evian's 7.2. In 2001 the Yorkshire, England, water company found that 60 percent of 2,800 people surveyed could not tell the difference between the local tap water and the U.K.'s bottled waters.

The most telling taste test was conducted by the Showtime television series Penn & Teller: Bullshit! The hosts began with a blind comparison in which 75 percent of New Yorkers preferred city tap to bottled waters. They then went to the Left Coast and set up a hidden camera at a trendy southern California restaurant that featured a water sommelier who dispensed elegant water menus to the patrons. All bottles were filled out of the same hose in the back of the restaurant; nevertheless, Angelenos were willing to plunk down nearly $7 a bottle for L'eau Du Robinet (French for "faucet water"), Agua de Culo (Spanish for "ass water") and Amazone ("filtered through the Brazilian rain forest's natural filtration system"), declaring them all to be far superior to tap water. There's no accounting for taste.

Bottled water does have one advantage over tap: you can take it with you wherever you go. So why not buy one bottle of each desirable size and refill it with your city's finest unnaturally filtered yet salubriously delicious tap water?

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Put bottled water to the test. Is it really worth the 22 billion dollars people spend on it each year? Can you really tell the difference between bottled and tap water?

A blind taste test yields some answers to these questions. Then, find out how to drink the best-tasting water and save money, too.

Americans spend $10,000 per minute on bottled water, but just what's in it? You may never know, says Adrianna Quintero, attorney for the National Resources Defense Council, because of state and federal regulations and water test findings that are kept secret. Linda Green, an expert from Consumer Reports, fills you in on what to look for in bottled waters as well as the various home filtration devices available on the market. Pete Censky of the Water Quality Association breaks down the home filtration devices by cost and usefulness while Pankaj Parekh of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power protects the good name of tap water, long maligned as bad tasting but perhaps not such a bad choice, as revealed in the Tricks of the Trade water taste test.

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Well, I just got my hands on some of the new "Bloomington" Aquafina – this stuff is produced using a much-hyped 'seven process' filtration system. Basically, it's still municipal water, only now it's from Illinois instead of Missouri. It still goes through reverse osmosis, but now it also gets what they call a "finishing filter" and "ozonation" which has something to do with the oxygen molecules.

I gathered up a couple of my usual tasters, Pete and Stacey. We tried "old" Aquafina and "new" Aquafina side by side. All of us still like the old Aquafina, but maybe we'll get used to the new stuff. Pete thought the new Aquafina had a somewhat "slick" mouthfeel, and he didn't like the new Aquafina at all. Stacey did like the new, but said it definitely had a flatter taste than the old stuff. I thought the new Aquafina had a bland and slightly sour finish, but maybe it was just this batch. We'll see what happens with future samples, but we thought the new stuff was definitely different than the old -- a bit lacking in character. Maybe normal people wouldn't notice, but if you've been a die-hard Aquafina fan, you might be disappointed.

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Inside the chic restaurant, Frederick A. Laskey was nervously pacing, wondering if he had made a mistake in coming.

The executive director of the Massachusetts Water Resources Authority had boasted that the ozone-infused tap water his agency had just started producing was every bit as good as the expensive bottled waters Americans are expected to spend $10 billion on this year.

But now his tough talk was being put to the test. The Globe was doing a lab analysis and a taste test comparing bottled and tap waters. Laskey, reluctantly, had agreed to participate in the blind taste test, but he acknowledged he was worried the test could end up embarrassing him.

Laskey confessed to his fellow tasters -- Jim Koch, brewer and founder of Boston Beer Co., the maker of Samuel Adams beer; Geoffrey Fallon, the sommelier at Les Zygomates Wine Bar & Bistro; and John McNabb, the research director at the environmental group Clean Water Action -- that his palate wasn't very sophisticated. ''I often drink wine with ice cubes," he said.

Koch looked up in mock horror. ''Don't tell me you drink light beer on the rocks," he said.

The taste-testers went to work, swirling the waters in their glasses, sloshing them around in their mouths, smelling them for odor, and holding them up to the light for inspection.

But no matter how hard they tried, the testers failed to detect any significant difference between the bottled and tap waters. The bottled waters came from as far away as the South Pacific island of Fiji and ranged in price from 79 cents to $6.82 a gallon. The MWRA water came straight out of a Milton tap or the public drinking fountain at the John F. Kennedy Library in Dorchester and cost a half-cent a gallon.

''The differences were very slight, certainly not worth paying money for," Koch said.

Fallon, whose restaurant was hosting the taste test, gave a hesitant thumbs up to bottles A and C, which were the Fiji bottled water and Milton tap water. He gave an equivocal thumbs down to bottle D, which was Aquafina. PepsiCo Inc.'s Aquafina is water from the Ayer Water Department that is run through a rigorous purification process that includes adding the same ozone the MWRA is using.

Ozone, essentially electrified oxygen, destroys bacteria cells and also breaks down organic material that can affect the color and taste of water. By using ozone, the MWRA has been able to curb its use of chlorine and ammonia as primary disinfectants, although chlorine is still used as a secondary disinfectant as water travels through pipes to homes and businesses.

Swishing one of the water samples around in his mouth, Fallon said he thought he detected a slight nut flavor in bottle D (Aquafina) and a bit of an aftertaste in bottle B (Acadia spring water from Miscoe Springs in Mendon, which is sold by Stop & Shop). He said whatever differences existed were minor, if they existed at all.

''The differences I found could be there or they could totally not be there," Fallon said. ''Water is the purest of canvases that anything could affect."

McNabb said he thought he detected a hint of chlorine in the Acadia spring water. ''There were very slight differences, if at all, between the waters," he said. ''I wondered if I might be imagining them."

He probably was, since a lab test showed no chlorine residue in the Acadia water.

Laskey breathed a sigh of relief as the other taste testers, even those with more sophisticated palates than his, agreed that there was essentially no difference between bottled and tap water. ''It's reassuring," he said.

The Globe's lab tests, conducted by GeoLabs Inc. in Braintree and G&L Laboratories in Quincy, indicated there were some differences between the bottled and tap waters, but the differences in most cases were minimal.

The chief exception was a background bacteria test that found unusually high levels in the Fiji bottled water.

None of the five waters tested showed any trace of coliform bacteria, which can be an indicator of E. coli. But a heterotrophic plate count test, which indicates whether conditions are ripe for bacteria growth, showed Fiji water with an estimated 1,800 colony-forming units per milliliter. The recommended maximum is 500 colony-forming units.

Paul Tierney, director of the food protection program at the state Department of Public Health, said the higher level does not necessarily indicate a health risk, but possibly a sanitation problem at the bottling plant. He said tests by his agency have found levels as high as 2,500 in some bottled waters.

Heterotrophic plate count levels are sometimes higher in bottled waters that are not disinfected and exposed to higher temperatures before consumption.

Officials at Fiji water could not be reached for comment. The lab officials who conducted the tests for the Globe said they were confident of the results.

The three bottled waters -- Fiji, the Stop & Shop Acadia water, and Aquafina -- had no lead or residual chlorine. The tap waters from Milton and the JFK Library had trace amounts of both substances, but nothing of concern.

The tap waters also had more sodium than the bottled waters, just over 30 milligrams per liter. By contrast, the Stop & Shop Acadia water had 27.8 milligrams, the Fiji water had 18.5 milligrams, and Aquafina had just 1.13 milligrams.

State health officials recommend no more than 20 milligrams of sodium per liter, but the officials noted that water is usually not a major source of sodium in a person's diet.

One area where the bottled and tap waters differed sharply was price. The MWRA, which is essentially a wholesaler of water to nearly 60 Eastern Massachusetts cities and towns, charges the municipalities approximately two-tenths of a cent per gallon.

The prices charged to consumers by cities and towns vary. In Milton, the price is about a half-cent per gallon and in Boston it's roughly four-tenths of a cent per gallon.

The cheapest bottled water in the Globe's sample was the gallon jug of Acadia water from Stop & Shop, which sells for 79 cents. A 1.5-liter bottle of Fiji water sold for $2.29 at Stop & Shop, which works out to $5.77 a gallon.

The most expensive water in the Globe's sample was Aquafina. A 1.05-liter bottle sold for $1.79 at Stop & Shop, which works out to about $6.82 a gallon.

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These days, bottled water comes in all shapes, sizes, and prices -- and from as far afield as Norway, Fiji, and Wales. Which is the purest of them all?

Ty Nant, $4.50
One of eleven waters on Alain Ducasse’s menu, this Welsh still water is smooth but bland. The bottle makes a nice vase, though.

Voss, $3.99
Mainly sold at high-end hotels, health clubs, and restaurants, this Norwegian artesian water is low in minerals with a light, clear taste.

Acqua Panna, $2.49
A noncarbonated spring water from Tuscany with a rich, thick consistency. Good for the health-conscious who want to fill up on fluids before a meal.

Evamor, $1.99
Fresh from Abita Springs, Louisiana, it’s unusually high in calcium bicarbonate: One bottle has the nutritional value of six apples.

Smart Water, $1.99
The bowling-pin-shaped bottle is easy to grasp, and the added electrolytes combat dehydration when you exercise.

Gerolsteiner Sprudel, $1.49
Smaller bubbles than in most sparkling waters caress your tongue with high-velocity fizziness. Even if you don’t like seltzer, try this German carbonated mineral water.

Metromint, $1.49
It tastes like mouthwash, but the natural mint and purified water help digestion, and the strong smell is a great pick-me-up.

Fiji, 99 cents
Clear yet full-bodied, this artesian water from tropical rain is the best option at the average deli.

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The sensitive, holistic, spiritual ‘90's, when getting wasted means having a double espresso -- and when Echinacea is on the ingredient list for chicken soup -- is catching up with me.

Last evening we had a little get-together to compare the tastes of bottled water. This has probably been going on in California for quite some time -- but I bet a bottle of fresh spring water that this was the first water-tasting party in Moscow, Idaho.

The evening began with a glass of crystal-clear Essentia from Global Water Technologies Inc. in Seattle. Essentia has been purified with reverse osmosis, then enhanced with increased alkalinity and fortified with electrolytes such as magnesium, potassium, sodium and calcium. Essentia is smooth and pleasant with very little flavor. Of all the water we tasted, Essentia had the least flavor.

The local contestant, Idaho Ice from Elk River, Idaho was also very smooth and plain on the tongue but had a tad bit more mineral flavor than Essentia. I like the fact that Idaho Ice is bottled locally, practically in our back yard. It seems that we shouldn't have to pay the environmental and other costs of transportation for water, since there is plenty of it right here.

Crystal Geyser natural alpine spring water, bottled in the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California was said to 'tickle the throat' according to a few of the testers. I found the flavor quite pure, with about the same mineral hint as Idaho Ice.

The natural mountain spring water from Big Spring Water Company in Lewistown, Montana, put some new words in our mouths – sweet, slight almond flavor, lack of mineral taste. We liked it.

Water More Precious than Gold – a 'real liquid asset' from Okanogan Highlands Bottling Co. in Tonasket, Washington, was a full, earthy, complex water -- nothing for the beginner. This particular sample had an unfortunate "bottle aftertaste." Perhaps that was only a problem with this sample. Half of the profits from the Okanogan Bottling Co. goes to grassroots organizations that are actively trying to protect our environment.

Trinity from Trinity Springs Ltd. in Paradise, Idaho, has a pure, clean taste with an obvious, but not unpleasant, mineral component. Trinity Springs advertise their water source as the deepest known source for spring water in the world. I agree, since 2.2 miles down is really down there. Trinity geothermal water has not been excessively filtered or purified and contains naturally-occurring silica and fluoride. Trinity, of course, meets US EPA and FDA standards for safe drinking water.

It is difficult to rank the different waters from good to bad. All of them do the trick for me. However, this was a fun opportunity to sharpen the taste buds and become aware of the fine nuances in a necessity often taken for granted.

After all this clean water, we turned around and finished the evening in a orgy of ten different kinds of decadently-marinated olives, one of which was describe as having the taste of "romance on a hillside."

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It’s summertime, and odds are that at some point during your day you'll reach for a nice cold bottle of water. But before you do, you might want to consider the results of an experiment I conducted with some friends one summer evening last year. On the table were 10 bottles of water, several rows of glasses and some paper for recording our impressions. We were to evaluate samples from each bottle for appearance, odor, flavor, mouth, feel and aftertaste - and our aim was to identify the interloper among the famous names. One of our bottles had been filled from the tap. Would we spot it?

We worked our way through the samples, writing scores for each one. None of us could detect any odor, even when swilling water around in large wine glasses, but other differences between the waters were instantly apparent. Between sips, we cleansed our palates with wine. (It seemed only fair, since water serves the same function at a wine tasting.)

The variation between waters was wide, yet the water from the tap did not stand out: only one of us correctly identified it. This simple experiment seemed to confirm that most people cannot tell the difference between tap water and bottled water. Yet they buy it anyway - and in enormous quantities.

In 2004, Americans, on average, drank 24 gallons of bottled water, making it second only to carbonated soft drinks in popularity. Furthermore, consumption of bottled water is growing more quickly than that of soft drinks and has more than doubled in the past decade. This year, Americans will spend around $9.8 billion on bottled water, according to the Beverage Marketing Corporation.

Ounce for ounce, it costs more than gasoline, even at today's high gasoline prices; depending on the brand, it costs 250 to 10,000 times more than tap water. Globally, bottled water is now a $46 billion industry. Why has it become so popular?

It cannot be the taste, since most people cannot tell the difference in a blind tasting. Much bottled water is, in any case, derived from municipal water supplies, though it is sometimes filtered, or has additional minerals added to it.

Nor is there any health or nutritional benefit to drinking bottled water over tap water. In one study, published in The Archives of Family Medicine, researchers compared bottled water with tap water from Cleveland, and found that nearly a quarter of the samples of bottled water had significantly higher levels of bacteria. The scientists concluded that "use of bottled water on the assumption of purity can be misguided." Another study carried out at the University of Geneva found that bottled water was no better from a nutritional point of view than ordinary tap water.

Admittedly, both kinds of water suffer from occasional contamination problems, but tap water is more stringently monitored and tightly regulated than bottled water. New York City tap water, for example, was tested 430,600 times during 2004 alone.

What of the idea that drinking bottled water allows you to avoid the chemicals that are sometimes added to tap water? Alas, some bottled waters contain the same chemicals anyway - and they are, in any case, unavoidable.

Researchers at the University of Texas found that showers and dishwashers liberate trace amounts of chemicals from municipal water supplies into the air. Squirting hot water through a nozzle, to produce a fine spray, increases the surface area of water in contact with the air, liberating dissolved substances in a process known as "stripping." So if you want to avoid those chemicals for some reason, drinking bottled water is not enough. You will also have to wear a gas mask in the shower, and when unloading the dishwasher.

Bottled water is undeniably more fashionable and portable than tap water. The practice of carrying a small bottle, pioneered by supermodels, has become commonplace. But despite its association with purity and cleanliness, bottled water is bad for the environment. It is shipped at vast expense from one part of the world to another, is then kept refrigerated before sale, and causes huge numbers of plastic bottles to go into landfills.

Of course, tap water is not so abundant in the developing world. And that is ultimately why I find the illogical enthusiasm for bottled water not simply peculiar, but distasteful. For those of us in the developed world, safe water is now so abundant that we can afford to shun the tap water under our noses, and drink bottled water instead: our choice of water has become a lifestyle option. For many people in the developing world, however, access to water remains a matter of life or death.

More than 2.6 billion people, or more than 40 percent of the world's population, lack basic sanitation, and more than one billion people lack reliable access to safe drinking water. The World Health Organization estimates that 80 percent of all illness in the world is due to water-borne diseases, and that at any given time, around half of the people in the developing world are suffering from diseases associated with inadequate water or sanitation, which kill around five million people a year.

Widespread illness also makes countries less productive, more dependent on outside aid, and less able to lift themselves out of poverty. One of the main reasons girls do not go to school in many parts of the developing world is that they have to spend so much time fetching water from distant wells.

Clean water could be provided to everyone on earth for an outlay of $1.7 billion a year beyond current spending on water projects, according to the International Water Management Institute. Improving sanitation, which is just as important, would cost a further $9.3 billion per year. This is less than a quarter of global annual spending on bottled water.

I have no objections to people drinking bottled water in the developing world; it is often the only safe supply. But it would surely be better if they had access to safe tap water instead. The logical response, for those of us in the developed world, is to stop spending money on bottled water and to give the money to water charities.

If you don't believe me about the taste, then set up a tasting, and see if you really can tell the difference. A water tasting is fun, and you may be surprised by the results. There is no danger of a hangover. But you may well conclude, as I have, that bottled water has an unacceptably bitter taste.

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It's hard to imagine life without bottled water, though at one point the concept seemed outrageous.

People have been bottling water for centuries, but toting around glass containers of liquid was never ideal. Thanks to the advent of fully recyclable plastic bottles in the 1980s, people can now bring water just about anywhere they want -- the gym, the car and the office.

In 2004, U.S. sales of bottled water were at $9.2 billion, according to Beverage Marketing Corporation, a research and consulting firm in New York City. Bottled water is the fastest-growing major beverage category in the U.S., and it isn't just portability that puts it in high demand.

"The bottled water industry grew about 10% in 2005, while carbonated soft drinks revenue is essentially flat," says Gary Hemphill, marketing director of BMC. "There are a couple of things driving the market -- sure, people like to have a tap water substitution, but it's really driven by people's demands for a healthier alternative to the wide array of beverages on the market."

These days, consumers can choose from myriad types of bottled water, and not just sparkling, still, purified or Artesian water from Croatia. A whole slew of new drinks claim to offer more benefits than a glass of regular H2O. Glaceau, a small "enhanced water" company based in Whitestone, N.Y., has introduced Smartwater, which contains electrolytes that are supposed to quench thirst quicker. Borba, a nutraceutical skin-care company in Woodland Hills, Calif., claims its water will make skin better hydrated, clearer or firmer within seven days. One of the founders of juice company Nantucket Nectars started O Beverages of Cambridge, Mass., to offer fruit-flavored water without added sugar.

Despite all the supposed benefits of such drinks, Dr. David Robbins, a director in the division of digestive diseases at New York City's Beth Israel Medical Center, plans on sticking to pure water. These enhanced waters certainly aren't harmful to drink, but whether you need them is another question, he says.

"There's been an explosion of supplementing drinks," he says, "and the reality is that if you are a healthy individual who has a good diet, then these are just marketing ploys."

Which makes sense. Years ago, small companies such as Mountain Valley Spring Water, based in Hot Springs, Ark., and Evian, now a subsidiary of French firm Group Danone, solely produced bottled water goods. But now behemoths like Swiss-based Nestle are dominating the industry. According to BMC, Nestle is the largest bottled water company in the U.S., with $2.7 billion in wholesale sales in 2004 for brands like Poland Springs and Arrowhead.

The creation of innovative water is not the only by-product of the competitive bottled water industry. Pricing is also increasingly aggressive. Carbonated soft drinks from companies such as Pepsi Bottling Group and Coca-Cola usually cost between $1 to $1.50 per 1.5 liter bottle; the same size bottle of water from the two companies typically costs between 49 cents and $1. Meanwhile, anyone interested in purchasing one of the enhanced waters like Borba can plan on shelling out about $2.50 per bottle.

Whether a person wants to drink "ordinary" bottled water or take it up a notch, there's a product being marketed to fit the bill. Want fresher breath or clearer skin? Want to put money toward environmental causes? It's just a matter of finding the right bottled water.

We've assembled a list of nine of the most interesting bottled waters on the market. Keep in mind, some of the "waters" may not technically be considered bottled water. The FDA has standards for spring, purified, mineral, sparkling, artesian and well water. Any other water—such as those that contain added flavor, enhancements or vitamins—is considered a soft drink.

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Used to be that when you got thirsty away from home, you had to look for a drinking fountain -- and take whatever nasty, murky, brownish, metallic-tasting stuff came out of the faucet.

Now you can pop into almost any store and pay obscenely high prices for the packaging of purified tap water (Dasani and Aquafina) or spring water (like Poland Springs, Springtime, and others).

But it's worth it to me. I happily drink any of the brands I just named. On car trips, on my bicycle, beside my desk while I'm working -- it's rare that I don't have a bottle beside me.

Even in theaters, where the already high price is doubled, I'd rather drink bottled water than something that fizzes or pumps me up with caffeine.

I actually got my taste for bottled waters in Brazil, where the tap water wasn't safe -- most Brazilians drank only filtered water, and foreigners like me, who had no resistance to the local microbes, would be doomed if we went for the tap.

Didn't matter. On any street, we could step into any bar (a bar in Brazil is a combination of saloon, convenience store, and delicatessen) and pick up Agua Lindoya.

It tasted so good ... but when I came home to the states, there simply wasn't any bottled water to be had. It took twenty years for us to catch up and get bottled water on every corner.

I've never seen Agua Lindoya in the States, but restaurants offer plenty of other fancy imported waters.

Now, I can't tell you a thing about bubbly waters, natural or otherwise, because I don't like any of them. I only drink still waters, so those are the only ones I can review.

Everybody's taste is different, of course, but I've given up on French waters. Evian is everywhere, of course, but there are others, like Vitelle and Volvic, and they all have a weird aftertaste that I just don't care for. It's hard to describe flavors in words, of course. The closest I can come is to say that these waters taste as if they've had extra blandness injected into them.

I've had some British waters that I enjoy -- the Marriott Marquis in New York offers one (in a dark blue bottle) whose brand I've forgotten but whose flavor I remember well. But my favorites all come from Italy.

The best -- or at least the one I like most -- is Panna. It's bottled by the San Pellegrino people, and it has, whether cold or room-temperature, the best flavor of any bottled water I've ever tasted.

So in restaurants, I'll take tap water over Evian any day (especially in New York, where the tap water is delicious) -- but when I can get Panna, I drink so much of it that, well, it's a good thing it isn't wine.

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Consumption of bottled water in the world increases by an average 12% each year, in spite of its excessively high price compared to tap water. Why do we drink bottled water? What is bottled water? Is it better than tap water?

Why bottled water?

The human body ideally requires us to drink two litres of water per day and people are increasingly looking towards bottled water as a means of meeting some or all of these daily requirements. Bottled water is perceived as being safer and of better quality. Often consumers look for security from food scandals in industrialised countries or water borne diseases in developing countries. Even in countries where there is access to safe public drinking water, people spend up to 1000 times more for bottled water.

Bottled water consumption has been steadily growing in the world for the past 30 years. It is the most dynamic sector of all the food and beverage industry: consumption in the world increases by an average 12% each year, in spite of its excessively high price compared to tap water.

What are the different kinds of bottled water?

The world bottled water market

The world bottled water market represents an annual volume of 89 billion litres, and is estimated to be worth US$ 22 billion.

75% of the world market is still controlled by local actors.

More than half (59%) of the bottled water drunk in the world is purified water, the remaining 41% being spring or mineral water.

While bottled water originates from protected sources (75 percent from underground aquifiers and springs), tap water comes mostly from rivers and lakes.

Bottled water consumption

An average of 15 litres of bottled water are drunk yearly per person. Western Europeans are the major consumers, drinking nearly half of all the world's bottled water, with an average of 85 litres/person/year.

The most promising markets are in Asia and the Pacific, with an annual increase of 15% for the period 1999-2001.

Within Europe, Italians drink more bottled water than anybody else: 107 litres per year per inhabitant in average. In the United States, 54% of Americans regularly drink bottled water.

Bottled water vs tap water

People have various reasons for chosing bottled water. Many think that bottled water tastes better than tap water and perceive it as being safer and of better quality even if this is not always necessarily the case. Companies marked bottled water as being a healthy alternative to other beverages, consumers buy it to feel well, to lose weight.

Mineral Content
According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO), although certain mineral waters may be useful in providing essential micro-nutrients, such as calcium, there are no guidelines indicating the recommended minimum concentrations of minerals. There is also uncertainty surrounding the mineral nutriction of bottled water over tap water as both contain certain quantities of minerals.

Safety and Health
Tap water may be contaminated by a range of chemical, microbial and physical hazards. Certain factors may be more readily controlled than in piped distribution systems and stricter standards may therefore to preferred in order to reduce overall population exposure. However, some substances may prove more difficult to manage in bottled than in tap. This is because bottled water is stored for longer periods and at higher temperatures than water distributed in piped distribution systems. Some micro organisms that are of little or no public concern may grow to high levels.

Environmental Impacts

Plastic bottles
Plastics are made from oil and natural gas, both of which are non-renewable resources. More than 1.5 million tons of plastic are used to bottle water. PET (the substance that water bottles are made of) requires less energy to recycle than glass or aluminum, and releases fewer emissions into the atmosphere. The processes used to make plastics however can cause serious pollution affecting both the environment and human health if left unregulated.

The majority of plastic bottles are not being recycled and are very quickly piling up and filling landfills around the world. Since plastic breaks down at a very slow rate, these will remain in our landfills for hundreds of years to come.

Transportation
A quarter of the 89 billion litres of water bottled worldwide annually are consumed outside their country of origin. Emissions of the green house gas carbon dioxide, caused by transporting bottled water within and between countries, contribute to the global problem of climate change. Nevertheless, 75% of the world bottled water is produced and distributed on a regional scale, thus limiting transports.

What can we do?

Bottled waters should not be considered a sustainable alternative to tap water. They are not exempt of periodical contamination and are less energy- efficient than tap water. However not all countries have the benefit of clean tap water. Clean water is a basic right. Protecting our rivers, streams and wetlands will help ensure that tap water remains a public service which delivers good quality drinking water for everyone at a fair price.

As a consumer, make responsible choices and do not forget the 3 R's:

Reduce your consumption

Reuse your water bottles

Recycle your bottles after you are finished with them.

Other solutions include buying filters for your taps, doing some research on your national water standards and buying water from local sources. In some instances, water bottles are actually filled with tap water and sold as bottled water. For your safety and health always make sure that the security seal is intact before drinking any bottled water.

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Coca-Cola is to recall all bottles of its Dasani water in the UK, after levels of bromate were found to exceed legal levels.

The recall is an embarrassment for the drinks giant, which has faced criticism for selling what is treated and purified tap water.

Coca-Cola said it had consulted the Food Standards Agency, which agreed there were no immediate safety fears.

“t's now going to be next to impossible for Coke to relaunch Dasani in the UK”
--Allyson Stewart-Allen, International Marketing Partners

The company says Dasani - recently launched in the UK - is "as pure as bottled water gets" thanks to a "highly sophisticated purification process".

"It's now going to be next to impossible for Coke to relaunch Dasani in the UK," said Allyson Stewart-Allen of International Marketing Partners.

"This is very surprising for a company as careful and deliberate as Coca-Cola, and a blow to the trust they're aiming to build with consumers as well as their strategy to diversify into drinks that can't be linked to obesity, such as water."

The Food Standards Agency describes bromate as "a chemical that could cause an increased cancer risk as a result of long-term exposure, although there is no immediate risk to public health".

In a statement, Coca-Cola said the contamination had been initially caused by its regular practice of adding calcium to Dasani, calcium which in this case "did not meet our quality standards".

"Immediately after we identified this issue we consulted with the Food Standards Agency," said Coca-Cola.

"The FSA has confirmed that there is no immediate health or safety issue. The withdrawal is a precautionary measure."

The UK limit for bromate in bottled and tap water is 10 parts per billion, while the Dasani samples had tested between 10 and 22 parts per billions, Reuters reported.

European tap water limits for bromate are less stringent at 25 parts per billion.

Thames Water, which supplies the Dasani factory, said the bromate had absolutely nothing to do with its mains water.

"Coca-Cola has indicated that the bromate was caused by its manufacturing process," said a Thames Water spokesman.

"We would like to reassure our customers that our water is regularly tested to the very highest standard."

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MINNEAPOLIS: PepsiCo and Minneapolis-based PepsiAmericas announced Thursday that it would shift primary production of its Aquafina brand bottled water from Springfield, Missouri to a new facility in Bloomington, Illinois. The Springfield plant will now produce PespiCo carbonated beverages while the Bloomington facility will produce only the Aquafina product.

According to PepsiCo spokesperson Cary Johnston, the Bloomington plant will debut use of a new patented filtration system. "Our new state-of-the-art HydRO-7 purification system consistently removes substances most other bottled waters leave in," said Johnston. The system combines charcoal filtration with reverse osmosis and other processes. The source of the water will be municipal water supplies from Bloomington and surrounding areas. "The new filtration represents a revolution in purification technology, ensuring that Aquafina water tastes as pure as possible."

The Bloomington facility will begin producing Aquafina water starting March 1. Aquafina is the number one selling bottled-water brand in the United States. No label or packaging changes are planned at this time.

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The Politics of Bottled Water

There's another food type op-ed in the New York Times (this is indeed a good trend to see). This time the topic is bottled watered and the politics thereof (LI: accidental PW: hedonist)...

The author of this piece (Tom Standage, author of "A History of the World in Six Glasses", a book currently in my 'must read' pile) touches upon several points which I agree with completely, and new ones which I hadn't considered.

At some point in the past ten to fifteen years, bottled water has become de rigeur for reasons that I have yet to figure out. Yes, with some bottled water, there is a significant taste difference when compared to tap water, but between the bottled waters themselves, the taste differences are so subtle that I'm not surprised that anyone can claim the market share.

The one big difference in taste between tap and bottled comes from many municipalities adding chlorine to the water to kill off bacteria. Chlorine has a specific taste, but it's easily removed with the use of a Brita water filter. Naturally the larger beverage producers have already figured this out, and have added several brands of bottled water that are simply tap water with the chlorine filtered out. For those of you not link inclined, here's what you need to know...Coke owns Dasani, Pepsi owns Aquafina, and Dr. Pepper/7 Up owns Deja Blue.

The bottled water pandemic has affected many food operations. Try to get a glass of ice water at a movie theater, and they'll point you to their bottled water. At one point, Coke was in bed with Olive Garden, creating a plan where the servers would try to sway the Olive Garden customers who wanted only ice water to purchase Dasani bottled water instead of their restaurants tap water. In short, many companies are wanting us to pay for items that we can get (nearly) free right out of the faucet.

I'm not immune to these ploys. Although I rely heavily on my Brita pitcher (Thanks Tara), at the movie theater I'm stuck. At dinners out, mineral water is on the menu. Now I have to rethink my position.

The larger issue here (which I am probably not devoting nearly enough words) is how can we as a culture commodify something that is a necessity of life? As Mr. Standage notes "The logical response, for those of us in the developed world, is to stop spending money on bottled water and to give the money to water charities."

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Americans spend more than $10,000 a minute for something that is readily available for free: water. Why do we shell out from 240 to over 10,000 times more per gallon for bottled water than we do for tap water? Perhaps we've given in to the marketing and advertising hype that bottled water comes from pristine springs and lakes. Or maybe because of the taste or the perception that bottled water is better regulated, safer or purer than tap water. However, according to government and industry estimates, about one fourth of bottled water is bottled tap water (sometimes, but not always, with additional treatment).

In 1999, the Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) finished a four-year study of the bottled water industry. Some of the issues the organization looked at were bacterial and chemical contamination; federal and state programs governing bottled water safety and testing; and sources of bottled water.

The study found that tap water is often better regulated than bottled water and has to meet more stringent standards at both the federal and local levels. Cities must test their water for chemical contaminants at least once a quarter, but bottlers must only test annually. While the US Food and Drug Administration does have bottled water standards in place, these are not nearly as strict as those for tap water. In addition, according to the NRDC, 60 to 70 percent of the bottle water sold in the US is exempt from FDA's rules because these regulations do not apply to water packaged and sold within the same state. The International Bottled Water Association (IBWA) argues, however, that FDA regulation covers all bottled water because the components involved--packaging, ingredients and industrial facilities--must comply. In any case, among the thousand bottles tested by the NRDC, about one-fifth contained chemicals such as toluene, xylene, or styrene, known or possible carcinogens and neurotoxins.

One of the more surprising findings from the study is that a city's tap water cannot have any E. coli or fecal coliform bacteria, while bottled water is allowed a certain amount of these bacteria. In addition, most cities' tap water must be tested for Cryptosporidium or Giardia, common water pathogens that can cause intestinal problems, including diarrhea. In contrast, bottled water companies are not required to conduct these tests. City tap water must also be filtered and disinfected, but there are no federal filtration or disinfection requirements for bottled water (these requirements are delegated at the state level, but many states do not have meaningful programs in place). Tap water must also meet standards for toxic chemicals such as phthalates (hormone disruptors that can leach from some plastics), but the bottled water industry is exempt from these regulations.

Lastly, many people reuse disposable PETE plastic bottles, a study published in the Canadian Journal of Public Health in November 2002 confirms reused water bottles also make good breeding grounds for bacteria since thorough cleaning is difficult. Also, in one Italian study, the amount of DEHP, an endocrine-disrupting phthalate and a probable human carcinogen, in bottled spring water was found to increase after 9 months of storage in a PET bottle. However, it is unclear whether the levels detected could harm people drinking the water.

Environmental

Usually water is bottled in plastic packaging. Plastics are made of petroleum, a non-renewable resource that requires new fossil reserves to be extracted all the time. By choosing to drink tap water, we can conserve this valuable resource and reduce our dependence on oil. The plastic manufacturing process is also associated with toxic byproducts, such as styrene and benzene, which are released in the air and cause not only pollution, but respiratory problems and may cause cancers as well.

Most bottles will be incinerated or will end up in our already overcrowded landfills. The World Wildlife Fund estimates that about 1.5 million tons of plastic are used worldwide to make water bottles and according to the Environmental Protection Agency, plastics are the fourth largest category of municipal solid waste.

Obtaining water from an underground pipe is more energy efficient and uses far fewer natural resources than bottled water because of the transportation of bottles in trucks across the country or by ships around the globe. Besides consuming non renewable natural resources, such as petroleum, their transport also contributes to pollution, noise and overcrowded highways and streets.

The Solutions

What to look for

All bottled water is not created equal and approximately 25% of it is drawn from the same reservoirs that provide our tap water. There are essentially three kinds of bottled water: natural mineral water, spring water, and purified water. Under the EU definition, natural mineral water is "microbiologically wholesome water, originating in an underground water table or deposit and emerging from a spring tapped at one or more natural or bore exits." The sources of these waters are protected from pollution, but since they are not disinfected, they can contain microflora. In Europe, mineral water's reputed health benefits can be traced back to Roman times, but the actual benefits of these minerals (which include calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, silica and bicarbonates), are regarded today as minimal. In the US, natural mineral water is defined as having at least 250 parts per million total dissolved solids, according to the International Bottled Water Association (IBWA), and derives from springs or boreholes drawing from a protected underground water source. In the EU, the water's source must be included on the label. Spring water is similar to mineral water, but needn't have a constant mineral composition and is usually cheaper. The label must state the water's source. Purified water is taken from lakes, rivers, or underground springs and has been treated to rid it of minerals and contaminants, all of which makes it almost identical to tap water. Its source need not be stated; Pepsi Co's popular Aquafina and Coca Cola's Dasani brands fall into this category.

In addition to these major categories, there are more specialized sub-varieties distinguished by the IBWA. Artesian water originates from a confined source that has been tapped and whose water levels stand at some height above the top of the aquifer. Fluoridated water contains added fluoride and is mostly marketed for infants. Sparkling water often comes from a spring and is naturally carbonated. Soda water or seltzer, whose source is often tap water, is considered and regulated by the FDA as soft drink (not bottled water), whose standards are less strict than those for bottled water.

At 30 to 50 cents per gallon, filtering your tap water is not only more cost effective, but it also gives you control over what chemicals or substances are removed from the water you drink. Compare this to 89 cents to more than $2 per gallon for bottled water delivery to your home and the cost and environmental benefits of an at-home water filtration system become apparent. Additionally, filtered water keeps the plastic used for bottled water out of our landfills.

There are a many types and brands of water filters available, from the simple carafe, which you can purchase from most mass merchandisers and houseware stores from $18, to the more complex whole-house systems that need to be professionally installed by a plumber. Carafes and pitcher water filters usually filter water through a granular carbon filter and they are most effective for lead and chlorine removal as well as the cheapest. However, they won't remove heavy metals, pesticides, nitrites, bacteria or microbes. Another popular type is the faucet-mounted filter, available for the sink, shower head or refrigerator water dispenses, which works the same way as pitcher water filters. Remember to change the filter often, according to manufacturer's instructions.

Reverse-osmosis systems, typically expensive and difficult to install, operate by pushing water through a membrane, then flushing away a few gallons of contaminant-containing water for every gallon purified. These systems remove industrial chemicals, heavy metals, nitrates and asbestos, but not chlorine byproducts, radon or certain pesticides.

Stainless steel and ceramic thermoses offer a sturdy, hygienic solution to carrying hot or cold liquids with you. Particularly for hot or acidic liquids, which can encourage higher amounts of plasticizer leaching in plastic bottles, thermoses are essential.

When purchasing bottled spring water, look for one whose source is located closest to where you are (the label on spring water must state the source of the spring). The farther away the source of water, the more non-renewable fuel was used to transport it. This not only increases our dependence on oil, but also pollutes our environment. The shopping list below suggests brands of water bottled at a source close to your area.

What to look out for

Sometimes, when you're stuck outside for hours or at an event, you can't avoid drinking bottled water. So when you have to, choose water bottled in glass. Manufacturing plastic resin creates more toxic emissions than manufacturing glass -- producing a 16 oz. PET bottle generates over 100 times the toxic emissions to air and water than making the same size bottle out of glass. If glass is not available, look for bottles made out of plastics #1 (PET or PETE) or #2 (HDPE)—this code, indicating the type of resin used, is usually found at the bottom of containers and bottles. Plastics made out of this type of material are more readily recyclable. As mentioned, an Italian study has found that DEHP, an endocrine-disrupting phthalate and a probable human carcinogen, in bottled spring water increased after 9 months of storage in a PET bottle. However, it is unclear whether the levels detected could harm people drinking the water. Stay away from water bottled in #3 (PVC) plastic-this is a toxic plastic dangerous both to our health and to the environment. Its manufacture and incineration releases dioxins, a potent carcinogen. Vinyl chloride, the primary building block of PVC, is a known human carcinogen that also poses a threat to workers during manufacture.

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9. U.S. Food and Drug Administration
FDA Consumer magazine
July-August 2002
Bottled Water: Better Than the Tap?

It's a rare day that Kelly Harrison, a mother of five from Tulsa, Okla., doesn't find herself chauffeuring kids to some kind of sports practice or school activity. As she checks to see that each child is seat-belted into the family's minivan, Harrison also makes sure they've got the essentials: the right sports equipment, the right clothes, and what she considers to be the right drink--bottled water.

When she was growing up, Harrison, 34, might have grabbed a soft drink or juice on her way out the door. But for her kids, Harrison insists on what she thinks is a healthier choice--water. She says her children's young bodies need water as they play in the Oklahoma sun. Bottled water also contains no caffeine, no calories and no sugar. Plus, bottled water comes in convenient bottles, easy to tote from home to wherever the busy family goes.

"I really think this is best for a lot of different reasons," says Harrison, who often tucks a bottle for herself into the basket in her minivan that contains other on-the-go mom necessities, such as a paperback book and her cell phone.

Once, most Americans got their water only from the tap. Now, like Harrison, they're often buying their water in a bottle. At work, after a workout, or just about any time, Americans are drinking bottled water in record numbers--a whopping 5 billion gallons in 2001, according to the International Bottled Water Association (IBWA), an industry trade group. That's about the same amount of water that falls from the American Falls at Niagara Falls in two hours.

Explosive growth in the industry for more than a decade has placed bottled water in nearly every supermarket, convenience store and vending machine from coast to coast, where dozens of brands compete for consumers' dollars. In four years, industry experts anticipate that bottled water will be second only to soda pop as America's beverage of choice.

Water, of course, is essential to human health. Drinking enough water to replace whatever is lost through bodily functions is important. But surveys indicate that most of us might not be drinking enough. Is bottled water part of the answer? To decide, consumers need to arm themselves with knowledge about what they're buying before they grab the next bottle of Dasani, Evian or Perrier off the shelf. "It really pays to do your homework," says Stew Thornley, a water quality health educator with the Minnesota Department of Health.

Different Varieties

Bottled water may seem like a relatively new idea--one born during the heightened awareness of fitness and potential water pollution during the last two or three decades. However, water has been bottled and sold far from its source for thousands of years. In Europe, water from mineral springs was often thought to have curative and sometimes religious powers. Pioneers trekking west across the United States during the 19th century also typically considered drinkable (potable) water a staple to be purchased in anticipation of the long trip across the arid West.

Today, of course, there are dozens of brands of bottled water and many different kinds, including flavored or fizzy, to choose from.

Federal Regulations

The Food and Drug Administration regulates bottled water products that are in interstate commerce under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act).

Under the FD&C Act, manufacturers are responsible for producing safe, wholesome and truthfully labeled food products, including bottled water products. It is a violation of the law to introduce into interstate commerce adulterated or misbranded products that violate the various provisions of the FD&C Act.

The FDA also has established regulations specifically for bottled water, including standard of identity regulations, which define different types of bottled water, and standard of quality regulations, which set maximum levels of contaminants (chemical, physical, microbial and radiological) allowed in bottled water.

From a regulatory standpoint, the FDA describes bottled water as water that is intended for human consumption and that is sealed in bottles or other containers with no added ingredients, except that it may contain a safe and suitable antimicrobial agent. Fluoride may also be added within the limits set by the FDA.

High Standards

Is the extra expense of bottled water worth it? One thing consumers can depend on is that the FDA sets regulations specifically for bottled water to ensure that the bottled water they buy is safe, according to Henry Kim, Ph.D., a supervisory chemist at the FDA's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Plant and Dairy Foods and Beverages. Kim, whose office oversees the agency's regulatory program for bottled water, says that major changes have been made since 1974, when the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) first gave regulatory oversight of public drinking water (tap water) to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Each time the EPA establishes a standard for a chemical or microbial contaminant, the FDA either adopts it for bottled water or makes a finding that the standard is not necessary for bottled water in order to protect the public health.

"Generally, over the years, the FDA has adopted EPA standards for tap water as standards for bottled water," Kim says. As a result, standards for contaminants in tap water and bottled water are very similar.

However, in some instances, standards for bottled water are different than for tap water. Kim cites lead as an example. Because lead can leach from pipes as water travels from water utilities to home faucets, the EPA set an action level of 15 parts per billion (ppb) in tap water. This means that when lead levels are above 15 ppb in tap water that reaches home faucets, water utilities must treat the water to reduce the lead levels to below 15 ppb. In bottled water, where lead pipes are not used, the lead limit is set at 5 ppb. Based on FDA survey information, bottlers can readily produce bottled water products with lead levels below 5 ppb. This action was consistent with the FDA's goal of reducing consumers' exposure to lead in drinking water to the extent practicable.

Production of bottled water also must follow the current good manufacturing practices (CGMP) regulations set up and enforced by the FDA. Water must be sampled, analyzed and found to be safe and sanitary. These regulations also require proper plant and equipment design, bottling procedures and recordkeeping.

The FDA also oversees inspections of the bottling plants. Kim says, "Because the FDA's experience over the years has shown that bottled water poses no significant public health risk, we consider bottled water not to be a high risk food." Nevertheless, the FDA inspects bottled water plants under its general food safety program and also contracts with the states to perform some bottled water plant inspections. In addition, some states require bottled water firms to be licensed annually.

Members of the IBWA also agree to adhere to the association's Model Code, a set of standards that is more stringent than federal regulations in some areas. Bottling plants that adopt the IBWA Model Code agree to one unannounced annual inspection by an independent firm.

Bottled water may be used as an ingredient in beverages, such as diluted juices or flavored bottled waters. However, beverages labeled as containing "sparkling water," "seltzer water," "soda water," "tonic water," or "club soda" are not included as bottled water under the FDA's regulations, because these beverages have historically been considered soft drinks.

Some bottled water also comes from municipal sources--in other words--the tap. Municipal water is usually treated before it is bottled.

Bottled water that has been treated by distillation, reverse osmosis, or other suitable process and that meets the definition of "purified water" in the U.S. Pharmacopeia can be labeled as "purified water."

Bottled vs. Tap

Whether bottled water is better than tap water, and justifies its expense, remains under debate. Stephen Kay, vice president of the IBWA, says member bottlers are selling the quality, consistency and safety that bottled water promises, and providing a service for those whose municipal systems do not provide good quality drinking water.

"Bottled water is produced and regulated exclusively for human consumption," Kay says. "Some people in their municipal markets have the luxury of good water. Others do not."

Thornley, of the Minnesota Department of Health, agrees that consumers can depend on bottled water's safety and quality. But he says consumers should feel the same way about the quality of their tap water. Tap water may sometimes look or taste differently, he says, but that doesn't mean it's unsafe. In fact, the most dangerous contaminants are those that consumers cannot see, smell or taste, he says. But consumers don't need to worry about their presence, he adds. Municipal water systems serving 25 people or more are subject to the federal Safe Drinking Water Act. As such, the water constantly and thoroughly tested for harmful substances, he says. If there is a problem, consumers will be warned through the media or other outlets.

"In lieu of being told otherwise, consumers should feel confident of the safety of their water," Thornley says.

Dr. Robert Ophaug, a professor of oral health at the University of Minnesota School of Dentistry, notes that tap water has another advantage many people don't think about: It typically contains fluoride. Many communities have elected to add fluoride to drinking water to promote strong teeth and prevent tooth decay in residents, though some groups continue to oppose this practice and believe it's detrimental to health.

Ophaug says bottled water often does not have fluoride added to it. Or, if it has been purified through reverse osmosis or distillation, the fluoride may have been removed. People who drink mostly bottled water, especially those who have children, need to be aware of this, he says. They may need to use supplemental fluoride that is available by prescription from dentists or doctors. The supplements are usually recommended for children ages 7 to 16. Fluoride supplements cost around $15 for a three-month supply.

"At the least, inform the children's dentist or doctor that you are relying on bottled water," Ophaug says.

The IBWA says there are more than 20 brands of bottled water with added fluoride available to consumers today. When fluoride is added to bottled water, the FDA requires that the term "fluoridated," "fluoride added," or "with added fluoride" be used on the label. Consumers interested in how much fluoride bottled water contains can usually find out by contacting individual companies directly.

Surging Sales

Consumers don't appear ready to give up their bottled water any time soon. Younger, health-oriented people are driving the market's growth, according to industry officials. "They've grown up with bottled water, and it doesn't seem like such a stretch to them to buy water," says Kay.

Jeremy Buccellato, 31, of Ramsey, Minn., says he's heard the arguments that tap water is just as good if not better than bottled water. A glass from his own tap, however, provides water that's discolored, chlorinated, and tastes like "pool water." Buccellato says the extra money he spends on bottles of Dasani water is worth it.

"It tastes better and looks better, plus it's easy to take with me," says Buccellato. "What's not to like?"

Harrison agrees that there's nothing like a refreshing cool bottle of water to beat the heat during an Oklahoma summer.

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Bottled water isn't necessarily safer than tap water. About one-quarter of bottled water is tap water that has been processed and repackaged, according to industry estimates. And though bottled-water quality is overseen by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), whose standards for contaminants take into account the Environmental Protection Agency's tap-water standards, the two standards aren't always identical. For example, the EPA requires that tap water be monitored for asbestos, while the FDA imposes no such requirement on bottled-water manufacturers, maintaining that the sources aren't likely to contain asbestos.

While bottled-water companies must hew to rules for sanitary production, some standards for bottled water are stricter than for tap, such as those for fluoride and lead. But some are not. Bottled-water companies aren't required to disinfect or test for parasites such as Cryptosporidium or Giardia--a requirement for city tap water. Again, the FDA says that the sources of bottled water are unlikely to harbor the parasites.

For most people bottled water is safe if it meets FDA standards. Our report in August 2000, which tested and analyzed major brands for contaminants, revealed few worrisome results. Here's what we found then:

Arsenic (a poison). All tested brands met current EPA and FDA arsenic standards of 50 parts per billion (ppb). All but two would also meet the EPA's new, 10-ppb standard, effective in 2006.

Trihalomethanes (suspected carcinogens). Products we tested had levels below the new standard of 80 ppb. Some seltzers had levels of about 50 ppb. Spring waters and water from municipal sources had few or no THMs.

Plastic components. Eight of the ten 5-gallon polycarbonate jugs we checked left residues of the endocrine disrupter, bisphenol A, in the water.

Spring water. This comes from an underground formation and must flow naturally to the earth's surface or through a sanitary borehole.

Purified drinking water. This has been processed to remove chlorine and a majority of dissolved solids, such as magnesium. The source need not be named unless it is untreated public-source water.

Naturally sparkling water. This is naturally carbonated from a spring or artesian well.

Seltzer. The FDA regulates this as a soft drink, under rules less strict than those for bottled water.

Mineral water. Typically spring water, it contains dissolved solids--usually calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, silica, and bicarbonates.

Bottled water isn't cheap; prices average about 89 cents for a 1-gallon jug, the kind supermarkets sell. At that rate, a typical household would spend $214 a year for drinking water. And if they wanted it delivered at home? Add about $325 or more per year.

What does a dollar or more per gallon buy? If your tap water tastes bad, bottled water will probably taste better. The type of bottle can affect taste, though. When we tested the major brands in August 2000, our sensory testers judged better taste from containers made from clear PET plastic (polyethylene terephthalate) than from those in the cloudy HDPE (high-density polyethylene). HDPE can impart a slight, melted-plastic taste. The 5-gallon polycarbonate jugs used with home water dispensers give off the least taste. Chilling the water also helps. When water is ice cold, taste differences are apt to be less noticeable.

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It’s summer — prime season for thirst-quenching. And more and more, instead of gulping sodas and other sweet beverages, people have been reaching for bottled water.

Not only have consumers changed their habits based on concerns about calories, but in the belief that bottled water has health benefits beyond the alternative coming out of their faucets.

Truth is, there’s a good chance that fancy water you’ve just forked out a buck for comes from just the same place — a municipal water supply.

It’s all part of the maturation process for the industry, which after years of relatively high prices — and enormous profits — is beginning to see price cuts as the big players who entered the game in chase of big bucks fight to retain their market share.

You may already have seen the results in your supermarket, with better deals in the bottled-water section these days as the major water brands flex their muscles for a price war that could drive down the price of bottled H2O.

One of the reasons that the category has gotten really competitive in recent years is that soft drink manufacturers, most notably Coke and Pepsi, have spent a ton of money getting into a business that they hope will rescue their companies from slowing soda sales.

Pepsi's Aquafina is now the best-selling water brand in the U.S., while Coke's Dasani ranks second. European giant Nestle has the biggest share of the bottled water market with a number of brands, such as Perrier, Poland Spring and Deer Park.

Last year, according to ACNielsen, just here in the US, we spent about $9 billion on bottled water. Up to this point, there haven't been a lot of bargains in the bottled water business, but now Nestle reportedly is considering an eight percent price cut on its bottled water products, whether from France or from Maine. And analysts believe that companies like Coke and Pepsi are likely to follow closely behind.

As this segment gets more and more competitive, it’s important to pay attention to just what’s in that bottle of H20. Here’s a quick guide:

Why is water so important?
Most adults lose about 10 cups of water every day through normal body functions including perspiration and breathing. To keep our bodies working properly, we need to replace the water that we lose.

How can you avoid becoming dehydrated?
Dehydration can happen in any season, not just summer and not just on hot humid days. In the winter, heated air evaporates moisture on your skin, and although you may not feel thirsty, you need to replace fluids. Exercising in cold weather can cause you to perspire and become dehydrated as well. If you are going to be physically active, drink fluids on a schedule before, during and after the activity. Experts suggest:

Where does that bottled water come from?
It is estimated that about 25 percent of the bottled waters consumed in the U.S. come from municipal water supplies. Most goes through significant processing such as reverse osmosis, deionization, activated carbon filtration and other treatments.

Read the label carefully. If it is packaged as "purified" or "drinking water," chances are it came from a municipal water supply, and unless the water has been “substantially” altered, it must state on the label that the water comes from a municipal source.

Often images on the label show mountains, snow or other bodies of water. For example, the label design on Aquafina (from Pepsi) gives me the feeling of mountains and snow; implying that Aquafina may be from a mountain spring, rather than bottled at Pepsi plants using processed municipal water. Coke’s Dasani, also one of the leading bottled water brands is processed municipal water with added minerals. Many gallon jug waters are also from municipal sources.

And just what is “natural” water?
The word "natural" is only allowed for bottled water, which is derived from springs or wells where the natural chemical (mineral and trace elements) composition of the water has not been altered as a result of treatment process.

What exactly is “natural carbonation”?
It all started when shoppers assumed that the water in their bottle of Perrier came out of the ground bubbling. And for good reason — their television ads illustrated it that way. The truth, though, is a little more complicated. The carbonation comes from a naturally occurring source in the same spring system.

Originally, according to the company, “these natural gases met and mingled together with the spring underground, rising at a constant pressure and temperature (60 degrees Fahrenheit). A desire for consistency … led French scientists to devise a more efficient means to capture the water's perfect balance of minerals and carbonation in the bottling process. Both the water and natural carbonic gas are now captured independently. They come from isolated points at different depths, within the same geologic formation. Before they come together for bottling, a filter is used to remove any natural impurities in the gas. Once combined in the bottling process, the level of carbonation found in a Perrier bottle is exactly as it is at the spring.”

Types of waters
Bottled water is regulated as a food product by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Bottled water companies must adhere to the FDA's Quality Standards, Standards of Identity (Labeling Regulations) and Good Manufacturing Practices and requires beverage companies to label their waters to define where the water came from and if it's been purified or carbonated. Bottled water can be classified with terms such as “purified,” “spring,” “sterile” and “artesian” (or “artesian well” water). All bottled water sold in the United States (whether imported or domestic) must meet all of the same regulations. Here are the classifications:

Artesian water/artesian well water
Bottled water from a well that taps a confined aquifer (a water-bearing underground layer of rock or sand) in which the water level stands at some height above the top of the aquifer.

Drinking water
Drinking water is another name for bottled water. Accordingly, drinking water is water that is sold for human consumption in sanitary containers and contains no added sweeteners or chemical additives (other than flavors, extracts or essences). It must be calorie-free and sugar-free. Flavors, extracts or essences (such as lemon-lime) may be added to drinking water, but they must comprise less than one-percent-by-weight of the final product or the product will be considered a soft drink. Drinking water may be sodium-free or contain very low amounts of sodium.

Purified water
Water that has been produced by distillation, deionization, reverse osmosis or other suitable processes and that meets the definition of purified water in the United States Pharmacopoeia (pharmacological code) may be labeled as purified bottled water. Other suitable product names for bottled water treated by one of the above processes may include "distilled water" if it is produced by distillation, "deionized water" if the water is produced by deionization, or "reverse osmosis water" if the process used is reverse osmosis. Alternatively "_____________ drinking water" can be used with the blank being filled in with one of the terms defined in this paragraph (e.g. "purified drinking water" or "distilled drinking water"). These waters are taken primarily from metropolitan water sources, run through mammoth commercial filters, and purified of chlorines, detritus, and other items inappropriate for drinking water. You may have seen vending machines outside of your supermarket that allows you to fill your own bottle for 25 or 50 cents; this is the water and process that is used and is from metropolitan sources or even the tap water adjacent to the machine’s location. They are excellent to cook with when tap water quality is an issue.

Mineral water
Waters containing not less than 250 parts per million total dissolved solids may be labeled as mineral water. Mineral water is distinguished from other types of bottled water by its constant level and relative proportions of mineral and trace elements at the point of emergence from the source. No minerals can be added.

The naturally occurring minerals and trace elements in mineral waters are considered by many to be excellent for health and digestion. Typically, these include iron, potassium, magnesium, manganese, silica, chromium, lithium, and copper. While these are healthful, the value of mineral waters versus spring waters is still debated. Available from both domestic and international sources, the prices vary tremendously based on packaging and location.

Spring water
These are waters derived from an underground formation from which water flows naturally to the surface of the earth. Spring water must be collected only at the spring or through a bore hole tapping the underground formation finding the spring. Spring water collected with the use of an external force (in other words, a pump) must be from the same underground stratum as the spring and must have all the physical properties, before treatment, and be of the same composition and quality as the water that flows naturally to the surface of the earth. Available from both domestic and international sources, spring waters are ideal for everyday drinking as well as to make coffee, tea, or foods in which the quality of the water is a critical ingredient. Prices vary considerably based both on geographic location and packaging.

Sparkling water
Water, which after treatment and possible replacement with carbon dioxide, contains the same amount of carbon dioxide that it had at emergence from the source. (An important note: soda water, seltzer water and tonic water are not considered bottled waters. They are regulated separately, may contain sugar and calories, and by law, are considered soft drinks.)

Carbonated water
The bubbles in these waters can help ease digestion, and are available from both domestic and international sources. Some have slight flavorings added such as citrus, but taste even better plain or with a slice of fresh lime or lemon. If burping is an issue, avoid them, but otherwise, they are excellent to drink after meals as a digestif. Some are heavy in sodium, so those with hypertension or sodium restrictions should drink them only occasionally.

Flavored waters
These may be compared to soda pop, but infinitely lighter in flavor and absolutely lighter in sugars and sweeteners. They give just a hint of flavors like citrus or berries, have either no or modest amounts of sweeteners from high fructose corn syrup to sugars or honey. They are likely not to be completely calorie-free, but are modest in carbohydrates and calories when consumed sparingly.

Waters with healthful additives
These waters contain everything from additional minerals, vitamins, and other ingredients that make these more a health drink than “just water.” If this is the only way to get your spouse to drink water, great; otherwise, it’s a very expensive way to get your H2O; and in some cases the packaging and the labeling can be misleading. Remember that most Americans do not have vitamin deficiencies and buying waters to add vitamins to your diet might be little more than a waste of money.

Distilled water
These waters are mineral-free, so they’re perfect for curling irons, clothes irons and steamers, humidifiers, and any appliance that requires water. By using distilled waters, you can avoid the mineral muck that often clogs up appliances. Some people view distilled waters as good to drink because it is so pure, but naturally occurring minerals in waters are actually good for you.

Tap water
Many municipal water supplies, such as New York City, boast water that is as tasty and pure as the most expensive bottled varieties. By law, municipal water supplies must supply its customers a chemical analysis of their water composition. If you haven’t received yours, contact your local water supply. (Many now post their analysis on their Web sites.)

Water filters
Consumers can filter their municipal water by attaching a commercial filter to the tap, using a pitcher with a carbon filter in it, or buying refrigerators with built-in filters that make both filtered ice and filtered water. These are very good, but be sure to change the filters as recommended.

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With $11 billion in U.S. sales, the beverage's marketers have become clear winners

Americans spent an estimated $11 billion last year drinking 8.3 billion gallons of bottled water, according to Beverage Marketing Corp., the leading compiler of facts and figures about the beverage industry.

That means the average American consumed almost 28 gallons of Aquafina, Dasani, Evian or hundreds of other brands that comprise the up to $100 billion global market for bottled water.

So great is our thirst for the stuff that Americans now drink more bottled water than any other commercial beverage except carbonated soft drinks -- more than milk, more than coffee, more than beer.

And the trend shows no sign of abating. Both the amount spent last year on bottled water and the amount consumed represent nearly 10 percent increases from 2005.

Within a decade, says Gary Hemphill, managing director of Beverage Marketing Corp. in New York, bottled water could overtake soda as the leading beverage in the United States. (The average American currently drinks more than 50 gallons of soda annually.)

"The single biggest factor driving sales of bottled water is health and wellness," he said. "People see it as a healthy alternative."

Today's column takes a broad look at this fast-growing business. On Friday and Sunday, we'll focus on matters of production, marketing, safety and taste.

"This is an industry that takes a free liquid that falls from the sky and sells it for as much as four times what we pay for gas," said Richard Wilk, a professor of anthropology at Indiana University who has studied the bottled-water business.

"There's almost nowhere in America where the drinking water isn't adequate," he said. "Municipalities spend billions of dollars bringing clean, cheap water to people's homes. But many of us would still rather buy it at a store."

Critics of the bottled-water business say this represents a triumph of marketing by powerful beverage companies like Nestle, Coca-Cola and PepsiCo -- the selling of a ubiquitous commodity that most people can obtain easily and safely from their faucets.

They also cite the environmental harm that can come from the annual production and discarding of billions of plastic water containers.

Consumers of bottled water, however, say that they have safety concerns about tap water and that bottled water simply tastes better.

A 2003 study by the Environmental Protection Agency found that while 82 percent of Americans say they drink tap water, nearly three-quarters also buy bottled water. Twenty percent of Americans drink only bottled water.

About a third of Americans who buy bottled water or use filters at home do so because of health concerns, the EPA found, while nearly 28 percent do so because of taste considerations.

People in their 30s or 40s, and those with higher educations levels, are more prone to drink bottled water than other segments of the population, the study found.

Yet a 2001 study by the World Wildlife Fund found that despite the widespread perception that bottled water is better for you, there's actually little difference between what you can buy in a store and what pours from the tap.

"Bottled water may be no safer, or healthier, than tap water in many countries while selling for up to 1,000 times the price," the group said in a report compiled by a University of Geneva researcher.

The study concluded that the only significant difference between some bottled water brands and tap water is that one is distributed in plastic containers and the other via pipes.

"It's not a fair conclusion," responded Stephen Kay, spokesman for the International Bottled Water Association, the leading trade group for the industry. "Bottled water offers consumers the safety and quality they're seeking."

He added: "There are a lot of sensational stories about bottled water. It's a regulated food product that responds to consumers' demand and choice."

Bottled water isn't new. For centuries, people have flocked to spas and springs that offered purported therapeutic benefits. In 1855, France's Vittel Grande Source was awarded a permit to sell its mineral water in individual containers. Perrier received a similar license in 1863.

The industry's future came into focus in 1968, when Vittel unveiled the first plastic bottle aimed at a mainstream consumer market. The company's ad campaign played up how bottled water refreshes you, rather than any supposed medicinal value.

By 1990, smaller half-liter bottles appeared and were instantly popular with on-the-go Americans. Sales have skyrocketed ever since.

In the United States, bottled water is dominated by three companies: Nestle, Coca-Cola and PepsiCo. The largest, Nestle, sells water under a wide variety of brands, including Perrier, Arrowhead, Poland Spring, Ice Mountain and San Pellegrino.

In 2002, Nestle consolidated its dozens of bottled-water brands worldwide into a single subsidiary, Nestle Waters. The division now accounts for nearly 10 percent of the Swiss food conglomerate's total worldwide sales, with almost half of that amount coming from North America.

To help meet steadily rising demand, Nestle signed an agreement in late 2003 to bottle water from the slopes of Mount Shasta and sell it under the Arrowhead brand.

The 50-year deal envisions construction of a 1-million-square-foot plant at the base of the Northern California mountain, bottling as much as 520 million gallons of water annually from the local watershed.

Other companies, including Dannon and Crystal Geyser, already bottle water in the area.

Some residents of the small town of McCloud, located near the proposed Nestle plant, fought the deal. Among other things, they said that by paying only about $300,000 a year for access to local water, Nestle would be giving the town roughly a penny for every 17 gallons it can sell.

In 2005, a Siskiyou County Superior Court judge invalidated the contract, ruling that it failed to pass scrutiny for environmental impact before being signed. This month, though, a state appeals court reinstated the deal.

Barring a state Supreme Court challenge, that means construction of Nestle's $120 million Mount Shasta plant could begin this year.

Jane Lazgin, a spokeswoman for Nestle Waters North America, said no date has been set for groundbreaking. But she said the company is excited about the Mount Shasta site and the water it will produce.

"When we look for a spring, it's a lengthy search," Lazgin said. "There are many criteria that go into it. Part of this is the taste profile.

"I hope that consumers will find the high-quality taste of Arrowhead that they like."

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We've been advised to drink at least eight glasses of water each day. And an increasing number of Americans have turned to bottled water, shelling out more than $10,000 "every minute of every day", according to this months issue of Consumer Reports. The magazine explored the health and taste reasons for paying up to 30 cents for a glass of bottled water.

Consumer Union reviewers looked at samples of 39 bottled waters--still, carbonated, and mineral--focusing on taste and the presence of harmful substances. They found that taste differences were due to the type of plastic in the waters bottle. The clear plastic bottle made of polyethylene terephthalate imparted no taste, but the opaque plastic bottle used for water sold in gallon jugs imparts a "slight melted-plastic taste to water."

The strong rigid plastic of the five-gallon water-cooler jugs (polycarbonate) imparts no taste, but pregnant women might want to avoid drinking large amounts of water from these containers. A lab analysis showed the "worrisome chemical, bisphenol-A," which might pose a risk to developing fetuses, as suggested by animal studies (see HealthFacts, 11/98). Eight of the ten 5-gallon polycarbonate jugs in the Consumer Union review leached bisphenol-A into water. Glass was deemed chemically inert but heavy, breakable, and, invariably, the container for the most expensive mineral waters or water bottled for bars, restaurants, and hotels.

In the taste test of still waters, only Volvic Natural Spring water was judged to be excellent. At 29 cents a glass, Volvic was also the most expensive water tested. If you dont mind a hint of plastic in your water, try Arrowhead mountain Spring Water (12 cents) or Prestige Premium 100% Spring Water from Kmart (8 cents). The best carbonated water, Vintage Old Original Seltzer Water, was also the cheapest at 11 cents a glass.

Is the publics concern about the safety of tap water misplaced? Clearly, fears can be attributed in large part to the well-publicized 1993 outbreak of cryptosporidium, a parasite from animal waste, in Milwaukees water supply. But Consumer Union maintains that Americans have the safest water supply in the world. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has standards for some 80 contaminants in public drinking water. Whats more, a 1999 Federal law requires local water facilities to send "consumer confidence reports" to their customers. Call the Safe Drinking Water Hotline at (800) 426-4791, or you can visit the Web site (epa.gov/safewater/dwinfo.htm).

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Picture this commercial: it is a desert scene and the earth is scorching in the noontime sun. A blonde, beautiful, bronzed, woman crawls along the desert floor, parched and in search of water. She comes upon a bucket of well water and is about to take a drink when something in the distance catches her eye: an Evian bottle. She quickly abandons the full bucket of water and crawls to the Evian bottle glistening in the sun. She tips it to her lips, a single drop comes out, immediately quenching her thirst. The commercial's slogan: "Evian - superior water in every drop." But is it? Is one drop of Evian water superior over an entire bucket of ordinary tap water? What is bottled water, and why do so many women at the gym quench their thirst with the square Fiji containers while others with a reusable REI canteen? Is one of them getting healthier or safer water?

In order to find the answer to these questions, I headed to UCLA's Environmental Science and Engineering School and discovered Dr. I.H. (Mel) Suffet's 2001 Report Card about bottled water. According to this study, "more than 50% of Americans drink bottled water." So what is the difference between bottled and tap water? According to Dr. Suffet, the biggest difference between the two is the marketing.

According to both Dr. Suffet, and the Environmental Protection Agency's website on water, "Bottled water is not necessarily safer than your tap water". In fact, both of my sources agree, most of the appeal of bottled water is aesthetic. Both taste and look are two of the biggest reasons why Americans buy bottled water instead of turning on their faucets. The EPA website also mentions that where the EPA sets standards for tap water provided by public water systems, the Food and Drug Administration "sets bottled water standards based on the EPA's tap water standards." This means that the two are regulated by the same criterion.

So if the marketing is the biggest difference between the two, why do so many people believe bottled water is better? One of the issues Dr. Suffet's Report Card tackles is the idea of taste. Bottled water is primarily focused on a good taste to satisfy the buds of thirsty people. As Dr. Suffet writes, "The taste and odor concerns appear more important to consumer confidence in Southern California than meeting standards." Is there any added value in bottled water? Besides taste, convenience and look, the nutritional value is no better in most bottled waters than in that from your bathroom sink.

Interestingly enough, some states choose to adopt a set of "secondary standards" for their water. These are strictly aesthetic standards, not based on any kind of health benefits. Most people tend to object to the cloudy look of tap water, which is caused by the air bubbles forced into it from the tap. Also, the smell of chlorine is another deterrent causing people to turn to the Arrowhead dispenser instead of their kitchen sink. The EPA website notes that both of these unappealing characteristics of tap water will dissipate with a little time exposed to the air.

One exception to this rule of standards is people who have weakened immune systems, due to HIV/AIDS, or who are undergoing chemotherapy. Also, children tend to be sensitive to the impurities found in both tap water and some bottled waters. In these cases, one may turn to higher quality bottled waters, as recommended by their healthcare professionals.

Another option for more purified water, but which can also be deceiving, is the home purification systems. Tap water can be run through home filtration systems, such as Brita, in order to rid it of more of the impurities. However, the EPA strongly recommends researching home filtration methods thoroughly before relying on them for purification, as some systems focus only on taste instead of actually decontaminating tap or bottled water. For instance, where Brita stakes claims to truly filter water, as certified by the NSF International, the nation's leading independent environmental science certifying agency, Pur water purification bases most of its marketing on better taste, and only has one pitcher which matches all NSF certification requirements. This means if you are looking for more than improved taste in a home filtering system, you need to do the proper research to ensure you get the right product for you.

Something else to keep in mind before consuming bottled water is the addition of chemicals to the water from the actual bottling process. Through the process of bottling water, either by osmosis, or from collecting it from spring wells, the plastic of the bottle, according to Dr. Suffet, leaches organic chemicals into the drinking water.

So while Americans are spending millions of dollars a year on bottled water, for really no added nutritional value, Organic Authority wanted to point out an alternative to the common bottled water: Ethos. Unlike Dasani and Aquafina, the proceeds of Ethos do not go to a large corporation, but rather benefit thirsty children all over the word. They bottle natural spring water, sell it for $.99 a bottle, then use the profit to bring needed purified water to poorer parts of the world. If you are going to spend money on pre-bottled water, we would like to encourage you to make a universally sound purchase at the same time.

In the end, I concluded that unless you're on a train and a small sign demands you not drink the water, most Americans are safe consuming the clear liquid in many shapes and forms. It also seems that the only advantage my desert model had in going for the Evian bottle was a paycheck. The marketing would be great, but the poor thing would have been much better off hydrating with the bucket of LA tap water.

Bottled Waters By Type:

Mineral Water: "Containing not less than 250 parts per million total dissolved solids… No minerals can be added to this product." (http://www.bottledwater.org)

Artesian Water: "Bottled water from a well that taps a confined aquifer (a water-bearing underground layer of rock or sand) in which the water level stands at some height above the top of the aquifer." (http://www.bottledwater.org)

Spring Water: "Bottled water derived from an underground formation from which water flows naturally to the surface of the earth. Spring water must be collected only at the spring or through a borehole tapping the underground formation feeding the spring." (http://www.bottledwater.org)

Purified Water: "Water that has been produced by distillation, deionization, reverse osmosis or other suitable processes while meeting the definition of purified water in the United States Pharmacopoeia may be labeled as purified bottled water." (http://www.bottledwater.org)

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15. U. S. Food and Drug Administration
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
Aug. - Sept. 2002

Bottled water is an increasingly popular beverage in the U.S. Total U.S. bottled water sales have grown from roughly 6% to more than 13% per year over the last five years, according to data from MarketResearch.com and from the Beverage Marketing Corp (BMC).^1,2 Based on these growth rates, BMC has predicted that bottled water may soon become the nation's second most popular beverage after soft drinks.³

Another indicator of bottled water's popularity is the steady stream of questions about bottled water flowing into the U.S. Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) regulatory and consumer information staff. Who regulates bottled water? How is it regulated? Is bottled water tested and inspected? This article will summarize FDA's approach to regulating bottled water, covering such topics as pertinent regulations, statutory authority and requirements for regulation of bottled water, and inspections and sampling.

Regulating Bottled Water

In the U.S., bottled water and tap water are regulated by two different agencies; the FDA regulates bottled water and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates tap water (also referred to as municipal water or public drinking water). EPA's Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water has issued extensive regulations on the production, distribution and quality of drinking water, including regulations on source water protection, operation of drinking water systems, contaminant levels and reporting requirements.

FDA regulates bottled water as a food. The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) provides FDA with broad regulatory authority over food that is introduced or delivered for introduction into interstate commerce. Under the FFDCA, manufacturers are responsible for producing safe, wholesome and truthfully labeled food products, including bottled water products. It is a violation of the law to introduce into interstate commerce adulterated or misbranded products that violate the various provisions of the FFDCA.

FDA has established specific regulations for bottled water in Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations (21 CFR), including standard of identity regulations (21 CFR § 165.110[a]) that define different types of bottled water, such as spring water and mineral water, and standard of quality regulations (21 CFR §165.110[b]) that establish allowable levels for contaminants (chemical, physical, microbial and radiological) in bottled water. FDA also has established Current Good Manufacturing Practice (CGMP) regulations for the processing and bottling of bottled drinking water (21 CFR part 129). Labeling regulations (21 CFR part 101) and CGMP regulations (21 CFR part 110) for foods in general also apply to bottled water. It is worth noting that bottled water is one of the few foods for which FDA has developed specific CGMP regulations or such a detailed standard of quality.

21 CFR Part 129. These regulations require that bottled water be safe and that it be processed, bottled, held and transported under sanitary conditions. Processing practices addressed in the CGMP regulations include protection of the water source from contamination, sanitation at the bottling facility, quality control to assure the bacteriological and chemical safety of the water, and sampling and testing of source water and the final product for microbiological, chemical, and radiological contaminants. Bottlers are required to maintain source approval and testing records to show to government inspectors. Checking adherence to part 129 regulations is an important part of FDA inspections of bottled water plants.

21 CFR § 165.110. This section establishes a standard of identity and a standard of quality for bottled water. Under the standard of identity (165.110[a]), FDA describes bottled water as water that is intended for human consumption and that is sealed in bottles or other containers with no added ingredients except that it may contain safe and suitable antimicrobial agents. Fluoride also may be added within the limits set by the FDA. The name of the food is "bottled water" or "drinking water." FDA also has defined various other types of bottled water, such as "artesian water," "artesian well water," "ground water," "mineral water," "purified water," "sparkling bottled water," and "spring water" (Table 1). Bottled water labeled with any of these terms must meet the appropriate definitions under the standard of identity or it will be considered misbranded under the FFDCA. For example, a bottle labeled as containing "mineral water" must meet Bottled Water Regulation and the FDA the following criteria, among others: the water must contain no less than 250 parts per million (ppm) total dissolved solids; it must come from a geologically and physically protected underground water source; and it must contain no added minerals. "Mineral water" also must have a constant level and relative proportions of minerals and trace elements at the point of emergence from the source, with due account being taken of natural fluctuation cycles. FDA established its definitions for different types of bottled water in 1995 (60 FR 57076). These preempted state definitions existing at that time, some of which varied from state to state.

Table 1. Various types of bottled water.
TYPE	DEFINITION
Artesian Water	Water from a well tapping a confined aquifer in which the water level stands at some height above the top of the aquifer.
Mineral Water	Water containing not less than 250 ppm total dissolved solids that originates from a geologically and physically protected underground water source. Mineral water is characterized by constant levels and relative proportions of minerals and trace elements at the source. No minerals may be added to mineral water.
Purified Water	Water that is produced by distillation, deionization, reverse osmosis or other suitable processes and that meets the definition of "purified water" in the U.S. Pharmacopeia, 23d Revision, Jan. 1, 1995. As appropriate, also may be called "demineralized water," "deionized water," "distilled water," and "reverse osmosis water."
Sparkling Bottled Water	Water that, after treatment and possible replacement of carbon dioxide, contains the same amount of carbon dioxide that it had at emergence from the source.
Spring Water	Water derived from an underground formation from which water flows naturally to the surface of the earth at an identified location. Spring water may be collected at the spring or through a bore hole tapping the underground formation feeding the spring, but there are additional requirements for use of a bore hole.
(For complete regulatory definitions, see 21 CFR 165.110(a)(2).)

Under the standard of quality (165.110[b]), FDA establishes allowable levels for contaminants in bottled water. There are microbiological standards that set allowable coliform levels; physical standards that set allowable levels for turbidity, color and odor; and radiological standards that set levels for radium-226 and radium-228 activity, alpha-particle activity, and beta particle and photon radioactivity. The standard of quality also includes allowable levels for more than 70 different chemical contaminants. (For complete information on allowable levels for chemical or other contaminants, see 21 CFR 165.110[b].)

Section 165.110(b) also lists methods that the FDA will use to determine whether bottled water samples comply with the quality standard. Bottlers are not required to use these methods in their own facilities; alternate methods are acceptable. Whatever method they use, bottlers are responsible for ensuring that their bottled water can pass the tests used by FDA in its own laboratories, should testing be performed by the FDA.

What happens if bottled water contains a substance at a level greater than that allowed under the quality standard? Section 165.110(c) states that when the microbiological, physical, chemical or radiological quality of bottled water is below that prescribed in the quality standard, the label of the bottled water bottle must contain a statement of substandard quality, such as "Contains Excessive Bromate," "Contains Excessive Bacteria," or "Excessively Radioactive." However, including a label of substandard quality may not be sufficient. Regardless of whether bottled water bears a statement of substandard quality, it is considered adulterated if it contains a substance at a level considered injurious to health under section 402(a)(1) of the FFDCA.

Another noteworthy point about section 165.110 is that it allows for the use of safe and suitable antimicrobial agents, such as ozone (see 21 CFR §184.1563 for details on ozone usage). The FDA does not specifically require that bottlers use antimicrobial agents in bottled water as long as the water is safe for human consumption.

Inspection of Bottled Water Plants

FDA monitors and inspects bottled water products and processing plants under its general food safety program, not a specific bottled water program. Because FDA's experience over the years has shown that bottled water has a good safety record, bottled water plants generally are assigned low priority for inspection. The agency, however, inspects violative firms more frequently depending on the number, significance and recurrence of violations. In addition, FDA's field offices follow up on consumer and trade complaints and other leads, as appropriate, on potentially violative bottled water products.

General information about what FDA inspectors look for during inspections can be found in the Investigations Operations Manual published by FDA's Office of Regulatory Affairs (ORA). More detailed information about inspections of bottled water facilities can be found in the Guide to Inspections of Manufacturers of Miscellaneous Food Products, Volume II. Both of these documents can be accessed at www.fda.gov by following links to ORA and subsequently to inspection references. Specific items mentioned in the inspection guide for bottled water establishments include: (1) verifying that the plant's product water and operational water supply are obtained from an approved source; (2) checking whether any source claims on the label comply with the definitions in 165.110(a); (3) inspecting washing and sanitizing procedures; (4) inspecting the filling, capping, and sealing operations; and (5) determining whether the firms analyze their source water and product water for the chemical and microbiological contaminants listed in165.110(b) according to the required schedules.

Sampling and Testing

As with other types of food, FDA periodically collects and analyzes samples of bottled water. Samples come from several different sources. Some samples are collected during inspections if the inspector's observations warrant collection to test for contaminants or if the bottled water facility has a previous history of contamination. Other samples are collected in response to trade or consumer complaints. Starting in FY 2003, bottled water samples will be collected as part of FDA's Total Diet Study. Finally, samples of foreign bottled water products offered for entry into the U.S. may be collected and tested to determine if they are in compliance with all applicable U.S. laws and FDA regulations.

FDA laboratories may test the water for microbiological, radiological or chemical contamination. Individual samples are not tested for all possible contaminants cited in the quality standard, but for selected contaminants, depending on the reason for the sampling. For example, suspected microbiological contamination may result in microbiological analysis. (However, as noted, bottlers are required to maintain testing records to show to government inspectors for all the contaminants in the quality standard.) FDA also may review the labeling on bottled water samples.

FAQs About Bottled Water

What must I do to get my bottled water product approved for importation into the U.S.?
FDA's food import procedures can be found on the CFSAN website ( www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/imports.html). There are no special import procedures for bottled water.

I'm interested in starting a bottled water business. What must I do to get FDA approval?
FDA does not approve bottled water firms or bottled water products. However, some states may require approval of bottled water products sold within their states. It is the responsibility of the bottled water manufacturers to ensure that their products in interstate commerce comply with all applicable provisions of the FFDCA and FDA's regulations for bottled water.

Do I have to use the testing methods cited in FDA's regulations for bottled water?
No, these are the methods that FDA will use when the agency tests samples of bottled water for compliance purposes. Whatever method they use, bottlers are responsible for ensuring that their bottled water can pass the tests used by FDA in its own laboratories, should testing be performed by the FDA.

What is the shelf life for bottled water?
Bottled water is considered to have an indefinite safety shelf life if it is produced in accordance with CGMP and quality standard regulations and is stored in an unopened, properly sealed container. Therefore, FDA does not require an expiration date for bottled water. However, long-term storage of bottled water may result in aesthetic defects, such as off-odor and taste. Bottlers may voluntarily put expiration dates on their labels.

Are plastic containers for bottled water regulated?
The materials used to produce plastic containers for bottled water are regulated by the FDA as food contact substances. Food contact substances must be approved under FDA's food additive regulations.

Can ingredients be added to bottled water?
Bottled water is defined in 21 CFR 165.110 as water that contains no added ingredients, except for optional antimicrobial agents or fluoride. Therefore, firms cannot add any other ingredients to their bottled water products and still call it "bottled water" (or "mineral water" or "purified water"). The name of a product with ingredients added must include the added ingredient, such as "bottled water with minerals added" or "bottled water with raspberry flavor." The resulting product is a multicomponent beverage and must bear an ingredient list on the label or labeling. If the water ingredient is highlighted as a bottled water, such as spring water, the water ingredient must comply with FDA's bottled water regulations.

State and Local Regulations

In addition to the FDA, state and local governments also regulate bottled water. The FDA relies on state and local government agencies to approve water sources for safety and sanitary quality, as specified in part 129.3(a). Also, some states have regulations that differ from FDA's in content or coverage. For example, Texas requires water haulers transporting water in a tank truck or trailer to maintain a minimum chlorine residual of 0.5 mg/L in the water, whereas FDA does not have any specific regulations requiring chlorination of water.⁴ The International Bottled Water Association (IBWA), a trade association representing bottled water companies, also has developed a model code of regulations that its members must follow.

Developing New Regulations at FDA

Section 410 of the FFDCA provides FDA with specific instructions on establishing quality standard regulations for bottled water in response to developments at EPA. Under section 410, when EPA establishes new maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) or treatment techniques for contaminants in public drinking water as part of a National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (NPDWR), FDA is required to establish a standard of quality regulation for the same contaminants in bottled water, or to make a finding that such a regulation is not necessary to protect the public health because the contaminant is not present in water used for bottled drinking water. For treatment techniques, section 410 requires that bottled water be subject to requirements no less protective of the public health than those applicable to water from public water systems using the techniques required by EPA's NPDWRs. If FDA adopts an allowable level under the quality standard regulations, the level in bottled water must be no less stringent than EPA's MCL for drinking water; FDA's regulation must have the same effective date as EPA's regulation and must publish its regulation no later than 180 days before the effective date.

These requirements will apply to EPA's recent regulatory activity on arsenic. In January 2001, EPA published a final rule lowering its standard for arsenic in public drinking water from 50 ppb to 10 ppb, effective January 2006. After further review of its revised standard for arsenic in drinking water, the EPA confirmed the 10 ppb standard on Oct. 31, 2001. As a result, FDA must establish a quality standard for arsenic in bottled water of 10 ppb or less, or make a finding that such regulation is not necessary, no later than 180 days before January 2006. An example of other recent regulatory activity by EPA is the final rule that established an MCL for uranium in drinking water, which is effective December 2003.

FDA has generally adopted EPA's MCLs for contaminants in public drinking water as allowable levels for the same contaminants in the quality standard regulations for bottled water. However, in some cases, FDA standards for bottled water are different than EPA standards for public drinking water. Lead is an example. In 1991, EPA adopted a requirement that public water systems treat their water to reduce lead when lead levels consistently exceed 15 parts per billion (ppb). The 15 ppb level took into account the fact that lead appears in public drinking water from corrosion of public water distribution systems and residential plumbing. However, leaching of lead from distribution systems is not a factor for bottled water and, based on its survey data, FDA concluded that bottlers can readily produce bottled water products with lead levels below 5 ppb. In 1994, FDA adopted an allowable level for lead at 5 ppb as a bottled water quality standard regulation (59 FR 26933). This action was consistent with FDA's goal of reducing consumers' exposure to lead in drinking water to the extent practicable.

Recent Regulatory Activities

Disinfectants and disinfection byproducts. In 2001, FDA adopted EPA's MCLs and maximum residual disinfectant levels (MRDLs) for four disinfection byproducts (bromate, chlorite, haloacetic acids and total trihalomethanes) and for three disinfectants (chloramine, chlorine and chlorine dioxide), respectively, as allowable levels in its standard of quality regulations for bottled water (66 FR 16858, March 28, 2001). FDA also revised the source water monitoring requirements in the CGMP regulations for bottled water to allow flexibility in testing for these seven contaminants in cases where they would not be expected to be found in source water. The Jan. 1, 2002 effective date for this regulation is the same as the effective date of EPA's regulations for the same contaminants in public drinking water.

Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule. In a Federal Register notice of July 5, 2001 (66 FR 35439), FDA announced that it would not issue a standard of quality regulation in response to an EPA rule (63 FR 69477) establishing treatment technique requirements for improved control of Cryptosporidium in public drinking water obtained from surface water or ground water under the influence of surface water. FDA concluded that such a regulation is not necessary to protect the public health because bottled water is produced either from ground water that is not under the influence of surface water (see the definition in 165.110(a)(2)[ii]) or from water from public water systems, which is already treated according to EPA standards. Therefore, source waters used for bottling are not expected to contain Cryptosporidium.

Bottled Water Feasibility Study. Under the Safe Drinking Water Act Amend-ments of 1996 (Section 114[b]), FDA was required to publish for notice and comment a draft study and a final study on the feasibility of appropriate methods of informing consumers about the contents of bottled water. FDA published a notice requesting comments on this issue on Nov. 12, 1997 (62 FR 60721) and a draft feasibility study on Feb. 22, 2000 (65 FR 8718). Based on comments, FDA published a final study report on Aug. 25, 2000 (65 FR 51833). The final study report evaluates information received from the comments and identifies appropriate and feasible methods for conveying information about the contents of bottled water to consumers.

Conclusion

Bottled water is regulated as a food under the FFDCA by the FDA. Specific FDA regulations in the bottled water area cover CGMPs for bottled water production and a standard of identity and quality for bottled water. Recent regulatory activity on bottled water includes adoption of allowable levels of certain disinfectants and disinfection byproducts in the quality standard for bottled water and publication of a feasibility study on the appropriate methods for providing consumers with information on the contents of bottled water. The frequency of questions on bottled water reflects public interest in this increasingly popular drink.

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"Water, water everywhere, but not a drop to drink" from the Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner is perhaps a fitting description of the attitude of many consumers living in urban areas today who are increasingly looking toward bottled water as a means of meeting some or all of their daily requirements. As fresh water supplies are further stretched to meet the demands of industry, agriculture and an ever-expanding population, the shortage of safe and accessible drinking-water will become a major challenge in many parts of the world. In the wake of several major outbreaks involving food and water, there is a growing concern for the safety and quality of drinking-water. While bottled water is widely available in both industrialised and developing countries, it may represent a significant cost to the consumer. Consumers may have various reasons for purchasing bottled drinking-water, such as taste, convenience or fashion, but for many consumers, safety and potential health benefits are important considerations. Since such considerations are often not founded on facts, these will be specifically addressed here.

While the term bottled water is widely used, the term packaged water is perhaps more accurate. Water sold in countries for consumption can come in cans, laminated boxes and even plastic bags. However, bottled water is most commonly sold in glass or disposable plastic bottles. Bottled water also comes in various sizes from single servings to large carbouys holding up to 80 litres. Depending on the climate, physical activity and culture, the drinking-water needs for individuals vary, but for high consumers it is estimated to be about two litres per day for a 60 kg person and one litre per day for a 10 kg child.

Drinking-water may be contaminated by a range of chemical, microbial and physical hazards that could pose risks to health if they are present at high levels. Examples of chemical hazards include lead, arsenic and benzene. Microbial hazards, include bacteria, viruses and parasites, such as Vibrio cholerae, hepatitis A virus, and Crytosporidium parvum, respectively. Physical hazards include glass chips and metal fragments. Because of the large number of possible hazards in drinking-water, the development of standards for drinking-water requires significant resources and expertise, which many countries are unable to afford. Fortunately, guidance is available at the international level.

The World Health Organization (WHO) publishes Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality which many countries use as the basis to establish their own national standards. The Guidelines represent a scientific assessment of the risks to health from biological and chemical constituents of drinking-water and of the effectiveness of associated control measures. WHO recommends that social, economic and environmental factors be taken into account through a risk-benefit approach when adapting the Guideline values to national standards. As the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality are meant to be the scientific point of departure for standards development, including bottled water, actual standards will sometimes vary from the Guidelines. It should also be noted that water used for making edible ice should be subject to the same drinking-water standard and include specific sanitary requirements for equipment for making and storing ice. For water in carbouys, similar sanitary requirements for dispensing devices need to be observed.

In applying the WHO Guidelines to bottled waters, certain factors may be more readily controlled than in piped distribution systems and stricter standards may, therefore, be preferred in order to reduce overall population exposure. This has, for example, been argued for the case of lead. Similarly, when flexibility exists regarding the source of the water, stricter standards for certain naturally-occurring substances of health concern, such as arsenic and fluoride, may be more readily achieved than in piped distribution systems.

Contrary to this, some substances may prove more difficult to manage in bottled than tap water. This is generally because bottled water is stored for longer periods and at higher temperatures than water distributed in piped distribution systems. Control of materials used in containers and closures for bottled waters is, therefore, of special concern. In addition, some micro-organisms, which are normally of little or no public health significance, may grow to higher levels in bottled waters. This growth appears to occur less frequently in gasified water and in water bottled in glass containers compared to still water and water bottled in plastic containers. However, the public health significance of this remains little understood, especially for vulnerable individuals, such as infants and children, pregnant women, immuno-compromised individuals and the elderly. In regard to infants, as bottled water is not sterile, it should be disinfected - for example, by boiling for one minute - prior to its use in the preparation of infant formula.

There have also been reports of fraud in which ordinary tap water has been added to used mineral water bottles and sold as the original article. Consumers may not be able to detect this by taste alone and, if concern is warranted, should examine the closures of bottled waters carefully before purchase and insist on seeing bottles opened in their presence in restaurants and other food and beverage service establishments.

In European and certain other countries, many consumers believe that natural mineral waters have medicinal properties or offer other health benefits. Such waters are typically of high mineral content and, in some cases, significantly above the concentrations normally accepted in drinking-water. Such waters have a long tradition of use and are often accepted on the basis that they are considered foods rather than drinking-water per se. Although certain mineral waters may be useful in providing essential micro-nutrients, such as calcium, WHO is unaware of any convincing evidence to support the beneficial effects of consuming such mineral waters. As a consequence, WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality do not make recommendations regarding minimum concentrations of essential compounds.

On the other hand, in some countries, bottled waters with very low mineral content, such as distilled or demineralised waters, may be offered for sale. While a large number of people have traditionally consumed rainwater which is similarly low in minerals without apparent adverse health effects, WHO has no scientific information on the benefits or hazards of regularly consuming these types of bottled waters.

The intergovernmental body for the development of internationally recognized standards for food is the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). WHO, one of the co-sponsors of the CAC, has advocated the use of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality as the basis for derivation of standards for all bottled waters.

The CAC has developed a Codex Standard for Natural Mineral Waters and an associated code of practice. The Codex Standard describes the product and its labelling, compositional and quality factors, including limits for certain chemicals, hygiene, packaging and labelling. The Codex Code of Practice for Collecting, Processing and Marketing of Natural Mineral Waters provides guidance to the industry on a range of good manufacturing practices matters. While CAC standards and recommendations are not strictly mandatory, Codex health and safety requirements are recognized by the World Trade Organization as representing the international consensus for consumer protection and any deviation from Codex recommendations may require a scientifically-based justification.

This Commission is currently developing a draft of a Codex Standard for Bottled/Packaged Waters to cover drinking-water other than natural mineral waters. Under the existing Codex Standard and Code of Practice, natural mineral waters must conform to strict requirements concerning, for example, their direct collection and bottling without further treatment from a natural source, such as a spring or well. In comparison, the draft Codex Standard for Bottled/Packaged Waters has been proposed to include waters from other sources, in addition to springs and wells, and treatment to improve their safety and quality. The distinctions between these standards are especially relevant in regions where natural mineral waters have a long cultural history. Within the CAC, the Codex Committee for Natural Mineral Waters, which is hosted by Switzerland, is responsible for the development of draft Codex Standards and Codes of Practice in consultation with other relevant Codex Committees, notably the Codex Committees on Food Additives and Contaminants and Food Hygiene. Parties interested in participating in this work of Codex should contact the National Codex Contact Point in their country.

It should be noted that neither the CAC nor WHO offer certification of any bottled or mineral water products. In this regard, WHO does not permit its name or emblem to be used in connection with any commercial purposes. While many countries have national standards for bottled waters and some have national certification schemes, no universally accepted international certification scheme now exists. Persons seeking information on bottled water certification should approach the national authorities in the country concerned.

Natural Mineral Water	This is underground water protected against pollution hazards and characterised by a constant level of minerals and trace elements. This water cannot be treated, nor added minerals or any exogenous elements, such as flavours or additives.
Spring Water	Bottled water derived from an underground formation from which water flows naturally to the surface of the earth. Spring water must be collected only at the spring or through a bore hole tapping the underground formation finding the spring. Water from different springs can be sold under the same brand name.
Purified Water	Surface or underground water that has been treated in order to besuitable for human consumption. It differs from tap water only through the way it is distributed (in bottles rather than through pipes) and its price.
Artesian Water	Water from a well that taps an aquifer in which the water level is higher than the top of the aquifer.
Sparkling Water	After treatment and possible replacement with carbon dioxide, contains the same amount of carbon dioxide it had at the source (not to be confused with soda water, seltzer water or tonic water).
Well Water	Water from a hole drilled in the ground which taps the water in an aquifer.

What are the different kinds of bottled water?

Bottled water vs tap water

Environmental Impacts

What can we do?

The Politics of Bottled Water

Environmental

The Solutions

What to look for

What to look out for

Different Varieties

Federal Regulations

High Standards

Bottled vs. Tap

Surging Sales

Bottled Waters By Type:

15. U. S. Food and Drug Administration Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition Aug. - Sept. 2002

Regulating Bottled Water

Inspection of Bottled Water Plants

Sampling and Testing

FAQs About Bottled Water

State and Local Regulations

Developing New Regulations at FDA

Recent Regulatory Activities

Conclusion

15. U. S. Food and Drug Administration
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
Aug. - Sept. 2002